Since ancient times, two principal streams of music have flowed through the Indian subcontinent: Marga Sangeet and Deshi Sangeet. The classical or raga-based music practised today follows the tradition of Marga Sangeet, where the exposition of the raga and the melodic contour take precedence, while the lyrical content is considered secondary. In contrast, Deshi Sangeet gives equal importance to both words and melody, evolving along a linear, melodic path. Bengali music, by and large, has developed and flourished under the ideals of Deshi Sangeet.
The earliest known examples of Bengali language and music are found in the Charyapada. In 1907, Haraprasad Shastri discovered the manuscript from the Royal Library of Nepal. The manuscript, named Charyacharyavinishchaya, is a compilation of 47 mystical songs composed between the 9th and 12th centuries CE.
In contrast to modern Bengali songs, which consist of Sthayi, Antara, Sanchari, and Abhog, the songs of that period were structured using four elements known as Dhatu: Udgraha, Melapaka, Dhruva, and Abhog. Among these, Udgraha and Dhruva were considered essential, while the other two were optional. Songs lacking one of these elements were termed Tridhatuk, and those missing two were called Dvidhatuk. At the time, such compositions were collectively referred to as Prabandha Gita. As the Charyapada songs lack Melapaka, they are categorised as Tridhatuk Prabandha Gita.
The ragas and raginis to which the Charya songs were sung include Patamanjari, Mallari, Gurjari, Kamod, Barari, Bhairavi, Gabda, Deshakh, Ramkeli, Shabari, Aru, Indratal, Devakri, Dhanashri, Malsi, Malsi-Gabda, and Bangal Raga. Musical accompaniments included instruments such as the patah (a type of drum) and the ektara (one-stringed lute).
Primarily, the Charya songs were composed as part of the spiritual practice of the Buddhist Sahajiya sect. During the reign of the Buddhist Pala kings, these songs spread throughout Bengal. The Charyapada and the Dohakosha mention the names of several Bengali spiritual masters. These songs, composed in a twilight language (Sandhya Bhasha), are rich in metaphor and rhythm, intended to convey the esoteric teachings of the Sahajiya Buddhist practitioners.
Following the Charya tradition, the next significant development in Bengali music was the emergence of Nath Giti—a genre of songs devoted to the glorification of Nath gurus. These compositions are contemporaneous with the Charyapada. The Nath sect’s religious philosophy and the lives of its guru-disciple lineages have been portrayed in numerous narratives across various regions of India, in several languages. The Nath tradition, which arose between the 10th and 12th centuries, represents a fusion of Buddhism with mythological Hinduism. The founder of this tradition is believed to be Gorakshanath.
Nath Giti evolved along two main narrative streams. One recounts the story of Gorakshanath and his guru Minanath. In a well-known tale, when Minanath is cursed by Goddess Bhavani and falls from grace, Gorakshanath uses his spiritual prowess to rescue him—a narrative also known by titles such as Mincheton and Gorakshavijay.
The second narrative centres around King Manikchandra, Queen Maynamati, and their son Gopichandra, focusing on Gopichandra’s renunciation and ascetic journey. These tales are commonly known by titles such as The Songs of King Manikchandra, Songs of Maynamati, and Songs of Gopichandra.
Unlike the structured verses (tuk or stanza) observed in the Charyapada, Nath Giti lacks such compositional rigour. It is assumed that the singing style of the Nath compositions differed from that of the Charyapada. Although they employed ragas, these songs may have been performed in a form resembling rhymes or recitations. The narrative of Maynamati and Gopichandra is also known as Gopichandrer Panchali, suggesting that it was recited in the manner of traditional Bengali Panchali ballads.
*After the Charyapadas, one of the most remarkable examples of early musical expression is Jayadeva’s Gītagovindam, a twelfth-century Sanskrit lyrical masterpiece. Celebrated both as a revered literary work and a symbol of musical artistry, Gītagovindam represents a confluence of poetry and music—a distinctive hallmark of Bengali musical tradition. Jayadeva, a court poet of King Lakshmanasena, composed verses that exhibit a sublime fusion of lyricism and melody. These songs are centred around the divine love-play (līlā) of Radha and Krishna. Structurally, the Gītagovindam is a dramatic poem, rich with dialogues and counter-dialogues between characters, primarily Radha, Krishna, and the sakhī (female companion). It belongs to the category of prabandha music, wherein the compositions are set to strict musical forms.
The Gītagovindam consists of twelve cantos (sarga), 266 verses (śloka), and 24 songs—these songs form the very soul of the work. Composed in the mātrābṛtta and Apabhraṃśa metres, the songs were rendered in classical ragas such as Mālavgauḍa, Basanta, Rāmakiri, Karṇāṭa, Deśākha, Deśabarāṛi, Goṇḍakiri (or Guṇakarī), Mālava, Bhairavī, and Bibhāsa. The rhythmic cycles (tāla) accompanying these songs included Rūpaka, Niḥsāra, Yati, Ektāla, and Aṣṭatāla.
Some of the ragas used in the Charyāpadas also appear in Gītagovindam and later in Baru Chandidas’s Śrīkṛṣṇakīrtan. For instance, the Charyā’s Rāmakrī becomes Rāmakiri in Gītagovindam, and Deśākha in Śrīkṛṣṇakīrtan. The Dhanushi (or Dhanshri) raga of Śrīkṛṣṇakīrtan is essentially a transformed version of Charyāpada’s Dhanāśrī raga. Mallārī continues to be widely known today as Mallār. Even now, several ragas from Gītagovindam, such as Bhairavī, Bibhās, Basanta, and Deśa, remain in practice, although it is uncertain whether the raga structures then match those of modern classical music. Presently, Bibhās is considered part of the Bhairav ṭhāṭ, but in Bengal, a śuddha swara variant of Bibhās prevails in folk music. The tālas mentioned in Gītagovindam continue to be found in Bengali kīrtan traditions. The use of the Karṇāṭa raga in Bangladesh is also referenced in the treatise Rāgataraṅgiṇī, and it remains prevalent in Bengali devotional music.
There were historically two main styles of rendering Gītagovindam—the dhrupad tradition and the kīrtan style. However, the former was the dominant mode. With the waning influence of Gītagovindam in Bengal, the rise of the kīrtan movement under the spiritual guidance of Sri Chaitanya gave the text a renewed relevance. His followers began to sing Gītagovindam in the kīrtan format, thus transforming the original songs into part of the kīrtan repertoire. This led to a profound and lasting influence of Gītagovindam on Bengali kīrtan music.
One of the finest examples of Bengali musical-poetic art is Baru Chandidas’s Śrīkṛṣṇakīrtan. The text holds immense importance as both lyrical poetry and musical drama. It is believed to have incorporated elements of dance as well. Śrīkṛṣṇakīrtan comprises 418 lyrical compositions (padas), each exhibiting rich diversity in melody, rhythm, and metre. Composed during a period that bridges the Charyāpadas and Lochandas’s Dhamali songs, its metrical style represents a transition from Prakrit to Bengali-Prakrit forms. In musical terms, Śrīkṛṣṇakīrtan can be classified as a viprakīrṇa genre—an eclectic blend. Based on the romantic tales of rustic cowherd boys and girls, it evokes vivid imagery of village paths, woodlands, and rural life. The story unfolds through poetic dialogues among three main characters: Radha, Krishna, and the confidante Barai. Many believe that Śrīkṛṣṇakīrtan contains the seeds of Bengal’s Jhumur folk songs and rural folk theatre traditions.
In the Śrīkṛṣṇakīrtan, a total of 32 rāgas and rāgiṇīs are mentioned. These include Aher, Kaku, Kahu, Kahu Gurjari, Kedar, Koda, Koda Deshag, Gurjari, Desh Barari, Deshag, Dhanushi, Patamanjari, Pahari, Bangal, Bangal Barari, Barari, Basanta, Bibhas, Bibhas Kahu, Belabali, Bhatiyali, Bhairavi, Malar, Malab, Malabashri, Maharatha, Ramgiri, Lalit, Shauri, Shri, Shri Ramgiri and Sindhora. The tālas (rhythmic cycles) referenced in the text include Yati, Krida, Ektali, Laghushekhar, Rupak, Kurukk and Athatala. The rāga named Shauri, used in Śrīkṛṣṇakīrtan, is likely a vernacular corruption of the Shabari rāga found in the Charyāpada. Some of the rāgas mentioned in Śrīkṛṣṇakīrtan can also be identified in ancient treatises on Indian music—such as Aher (Abhīra), Kahu (Kakubha), Ramgiri (Ramkri), Dhanushi (Dhanashri), Deshag, and others.
There are notable similarities between the Gītagovindam and the Śrīkṛṣṇakīrtan in their references to rāgas and rāgiṇīs. However, Gītagovindam contains more verses composed in the Patamanjari rāga, whereas Śrīkṛṣṇakīrtan features more verses in Pahari, which does not appear in Gītagovindam. Several tālas found in Gītagovindam—such as Yati, Rupak, and Ektali—are also present in Śrīkṛṣṇakīrtan. The resemblance extends beyond music to style and structure, indicating a clear and direct influence of Jayadeva upon Śrīkṛṣṇakīrtan.
In the realm of Bengali music, the contribution of Vidyapati is immeasurable. Though his Padāvalī was composed in Maithili, it gained considerable popularity in Bengal. His Vaiṣṇava Padāvalī is regarded as his most distinguished body of work, blending devotional fervour with expressions of human love. Subsequent lyric poets followed in his footsteps. Rabindranath Tagore himself was an admirer of Vidyapati and set many of his verses to melody, notably “Bhara Badara Māh Badara.”
Vidyapati, in composing his Vaiṣṇava Padāvalī, was influenced by Jayadeva—hence, he was often referred to as the “new Jayadeva.” A century later, the Bengali Vaiṣṇava poet Govind Das, who closely followed Vidyapati’s poetic path, became known as the “second Vidyapati.” Tagore admired him too and incorporated Govind Das’s song “Sundari Radhe Aoye Bani” into his own Bhanusimha Thakurer Padāvalī, setting it to music. Vidyapati’s verses are exquisite in their lyrical sweetness and musical elegance. Bengali kīrtaniyās (devotional singers) preserved his legacy by incorporating his compositions into Rasa-kīrtan and Pāla-kīrtan performances.
Overall, the influence of the Vaiṣṇava Padāvalī upon Bengali religion, society, culture, and consciousness is profound. It awakened a deep sense of humanity in the Bengali spirit. Vaiṣṇavism nourished the growth of the Sahajiya and Baul traditions, intensified bhakti within the Shakta tradition, and inspired the composition of Shakta Padāvalī infused with maternal love. Vaiṣṇava poets pioneered Bengali lyrical poetry and initiated the philosophical and aesthetic discourse in the region. Due to its subtle and diverse expressions of love and emotion, the Vaiṣṇava Padāvalī holds an esteemed place in world literature.
The love-play of Radha and Krishna is the central theme of Vaiṣṇava Padāvalī, which began in the pre-Chaitanya period. Inspired by Chaitanyadeva, countless poets composed verses on the divine love of Radha-Krishna, which became popular throughout Bengal. These verses came to be known as Kīrtan. This devotional singing is an invaluable treasure of Bengali music. As Tagore observed, “The joy we derive from kīrtan is not merely musical—it is interwoven with the rapture of poetry.” In the post-Chaitanya period, around ten thousand verses were composed in Bengali and Brajbuli. The greatest composers of Vaiṣṇava Padāvalī include Vidyapati, Chandidas, Govind Das, Jñāndas, Māladhar Basu, Sheikh Faizullah, Syed Sultan, Balaram Das, Lochan Das, Basudev Ghosh, Murari Gupta, Narahari Das, and Narottam Das.
In Bengal, the tradition of singing hymns in praise of God dates back to ancient times. Even the Buddhists practised Charyāgīti, akin to kīrtan songs. Kīrtan essentially involves chanting the name, deeds, and virtues of God. Chaitanyadeva refined the kīrtan into two styles: nāma-saṅkīrtana (chanting the divine name) and rasa-kīrtan or līlā-kīrtan (singing of divine pastimes). The five elements of kīrtan include kathā (narration), dohā, ākhar, tuk, and chut. Another associated form is jhumur, which continues to influence Bengali folk and modern music. Kazi Nazrul Islam employed the jhumur rhythm in several of his songs, such as “Churir Tāl-e Nurir Mālā”, “Tepantorer Māṭhe Bandhu He”, and “Rāṅāmāṭir Pathe Lo.”
Kīrtan is structured around udgrāha, melāpaka, dhruva, and ābhoga—analogous to the modern divisions of sthāyi, antara, sancāri, and ābhoga. The tālas used in kīrtan are cited in ancient music treatises and remain prevalent in both South Indian music and Bengali kīrtan. These include Dhrubatāl, Shrutitāl, Rudratāl, Vrikṣatāl, and Japtāl. The rhythmic structures of Jayadeva’s Gītagovindam and later kīrtans show remarkable similarity.
By the late 16th century, kīrtan singing had spread throughout Bengal. Four distinct schools emerged: Garanhati, Manoharshahi, Reneti, and Mandarini. Among these, Manoharshahi kīrtan had the greatest influence. In the 18th and 19th centuries, it was the most prevalent style across Bengal. Even kabigān and modern pañcāli show traces of Manoharshahi kīrtan.
From the fragmentation of traditional kīrtan, ḍhap-kīrtan was born. Rupchand Adhikari of Murshidabad (1722–1792) and Madhusudan Kinnar (Madhukan) of Bangaon (Jessore) were prominent composers in this genre. Their ḍhap-kīrtan songs gained immense popularity. Without formal ākhar, these pieces bear clear marks of pañcāli and yātrā influences. Common rhythmic patterns in ḍhap-kīrtan include those of three, four, five, and seven beats. Unlike the classical kīrtan, it avoids complex tālas such as Dashkoshi, Ar, or Loafa. Several of Tagore’s songs inspired by the kīrtan tradition reflect the mood and style of ḍhap-kīrtan. In the song “Oke bolo sakhi bolo, keno miche kore chhalo”, based on the play of illusion (Māyār Khelā), the influence of Madhukan is evident. Madhukan composed numerous songs centred on the love-play of Radha and Krishna, sung in various rāgas and rāgiṇīs.
The period between the 15th and 18th centuries marked the era of Maṅgalkāvya or Maṅgalsongs. These were composed of auspicious verses praising deities. They were set in rāgas such as Basanta, Malar, Shri, and Kaushiki (Botta), and were sung in a distinct melodic form known as Maṅgalsura. Typically, any religious song in praise of deities was performed in this style. From the Maṅgalkāvyas, we also learn the names of several musical instruments in use at the time, such as the shehnai, flute, mridanga, conch, kartal, and mandira.
Following Ramprasad, the most noteworthy composer of Shakta devotional songs was Kamalakanta Bhattacharya (1772–1821). Kamalakanta served as the court poet to Maharaja Tejchandra of Bardhaman. He composed a significant number of Agomoni and Bijoya songs, as well as devotional Shyama Sangeet. This stream of Shyama Sangeet or Shakta devotional poetry, which flowed through figures such as Ramprasad and Tejchandra, ultimately influenced the imagination of modern poets and dramatists like Rabindranath Tagore, Girish Chandra, and Khiradaprasad, and found its consummation in the works of Kazi Nazrul Islam.
Another significant tradition in Bengali music is Kavigan. Its emergence and development were deeply rooted in specific social, political, economic, and cultural contexts. Kavigan began to emerge around the late 18th and early 19th centuries. In this musical form, the declining traditions of Padabali were revived in the guise of Sakhi-sangbad, the traditions of Shyama Sangeet resurfaced as Malshi, and folk heritage appeared as Kheur. In essence, the ancient and medieval forms of didactic songs were reformed to suit the times, evolving into the Kavigan, Panchali, Toreja, and Bayati songs of today.
Between 1757 (the Battle of Plassey) and 1859, the popularity and stature of Kaviyals (poet-performers) reached their peak, although the tradition extended across centuries both before and after this period. The practitioners of Kavigan were often self-taught poets, well-versed in the Vedas, Puranas, the Qur’an, and conscious of political and historical narratives—despite lacking formal education. On the origins of Kavigan, Rabindranath Tagore remarked:
“In the newly created capital of the British, there was no ancient royal court, no traditional ideals. At that time, the patron of the poet became the immature and cumbersome entity known as the general public, and the suitable form of courtly music for this sudden ‘king’ was the music of the poet groups.”
Created for public entertainment, Kavigan became the temporary arena for these spontaneous poets. They were required to compose and respond on the spot through a question-and-answer format (known as chhapan-uttor) during live performances. Two rival poets would compose verses instantly, accompanied by melody and rhythm. Their prowess was judged on wit, use of alliteration, melodic richness, logical arguments, sharp rebuttals, and the strength of their arguments. Depending on the intensity of the verbal duel, instruments like dhol, kansi, ghanta, or mandira were used with varying tempo and volume.
In the early 18th century, a poet-performer named Gojla Gui first formed a professional troupe and began performing Kavigan. His disciples included Raghunath, Lalu, Nandalal, Nitai Bairagi, Nrisinha, Haru Thakur, Bhola Moyra, and Ram Basu. Others like Kesta Muchi, Antony Firingee (a Portuguese), and Ramesh Shil also gained fame in the field. Despite being a foreigner and an outsider to the language, Antony Firingee was deeply attracted to Kavigan and engaged in extensive practice of the art form.
Among the poet-performers, Ram Basu stood out as one with a particularly witty and lyrical temperament. Ishwar Gupta referred to him as the “Kalidasa of the Kaviyals.” His songs were appreciated even among the educated classes. Rabindranath Tagore himself would sing Ram Basu’s songs. The song “Mone roilo shoi moner kotha” by Ram Basu was the inspiration for Tagore’s own “Mone roye gelo moner kotha.”
Today, Bayati songs—a unique evolution of this Bengali tradition—continue to echo the essence of Kavigan. A Bayati is one who narrates through song and engages in emotional exchanges via question and answer. Prominent Bayatis in Bangladesh include Abdur Rahman, Kuddus Bayati, and Idris Bayati. Tarashankar Bandyopadhyay immortalised the spirit of Kavigan in his celebrated novel Kavi.
In Bangladesh, the origin of Jatra Gaan (folk operatic performance) dates back to the 16th century. The word “Jatra” originally denoted processions and ceremonial parades on the occasion of religious festivals, where devotional music, dance, and theatrical performances would take place in makeshift stages or mandaps. Although ancient Jatra included dialogues, it was primarily musical in nature—hence the term “Jatra Gaan.” Jayadeva’s Gita Govinda, composed with dramatic and lyrical structure, closely resembles the format of Jatra Gaan. Chandidas’ Sri Krishna Kirtan stands as a seminal example of Krishna Jatra Pala of that era. It was traditionally staged in thirteen segments—from Krishna’s birth to Radha’s separation. In the gradual evolution of Jatra Gaan, we also find works like Chandi Natak or Chandi Jatra written by Bharatchandra, a scholar at the royal court of Krishnanagar.
During British colonial rule, the themes of Jatra Gaan began to shift from mythological to social narratives. Notable plays of this era include Chandi Jatra, Bidyasundar, and Monsar Bhashan. The latter was a reinterpretation of the Monsamangal texts, performed to alleviate fears of snakebites. Renowned composers of Jatra Gaan in the last century included Govinda Adhikari, Nilkantha Mukhopadhyay, Parmananda Adhikari, Madhusudan Kinnar, and Brajmohan Ray.
Govinda Adhikari’s Nouka Bilas was immensely popular in its time. His disciple, Nilkantha Mukhopadhyay, composed many plays including Kanshavad, Yayati Yagna, and Chandalini Uddhar, all of which were staged. One of the popular songs from Krishnakamal Goswami’s Swapnabilas Pala still resonates with audiences:
“Shuno Brajaraj, swapone aaj / Dekha diye Gopal, kotha lukale”
(“Hear, O King of Braj, tonight in a dream / Gopal appeared – where did He vanish?”)
This song is composed in Khamaj raga and set to Ektal rhythm. Many of Nilkantha’s songs are still sung today.
In traditional Jatra performances, alongside various forms of music, there existed a distinct style known as Ar-Khemta. This stylistic element was especially prominent in Gopal Ure’s rendition of the Vidyasundar play. Gopal Ure, along with Madhusudan Kinnar and others, remains a celebrated name in the world of Jatra songs. Hailing from Jajpur in Odisha, Gopal Ure captivated the cultural circles of contemporary Calcutta with his melodious voice. A famous song penned by him in Vidyasundar goes:
“Oi dekha jaye bari amar / Choudike maloncho bera. Bhramorera gun gun kore / Kokile dicche shara.”
This song, composed in a triple metre, exuded a lyrical sweetness that lent romantic songs immense appeal. Rabindranath Tagore’s music also reflects the influence of this Jatra tradition. Tagore’s composition “Ghôrete bhramôr êlo gun guniye” from Tasher Desh draws directly from the structure of “Oi dekha jaye bari amar.”
In the present day, Jatra performances no longer feature such musical interludes, having transformed into predominantly prose-driven spectacles. However, occasional songs and dances are still interspersed for the audience’s entertainment.
The tradition of pala recitations has found profound expression in Bengali folklore, especially in Mymensingh Gitika and Purbabanga Gitika—treasures of Bengali literary and musical heritage. Rich in realism, psychology, and life-awareness, these ballads serve as vibrant reflections of history, society, culture, and everyday life. They offer invaluable insights into the political, social, economic, religious, and cultural history of Bengal.
Among the most beloved ballads in Bangladesh are Mahua, Malua, Kanka o Lila, Kajalrekha, Chandrabati, Kamala, Dewan Bhavna, Dasyu Kenaram, Rupabati, and Dewana Medina or Alal-Dulal. These narratives are sung and also adapted for stage and film. For example, the Dewan Bhavna pala has been dramatised under the title Madhabi Maloncho Konna. These ballads were composed between the sixteenth and eighteenth centuries.
A particularly notable branch of Bengali folk music is Baul song. Prior to the nineteenth century, Baul songs had no written form, even though Baul philosophy and musical practice were well established by then. This oral tradition was preserved through the guru-shishya (or murshid-murid) lineage.
In the latter half of the seventeenth century, a strand of Tantric Buddhism influenced by Sufism gave rise to the Baul faith in Bengal. Madhavbibi and Aulchand are regarded as its early pioneers. Madhavbibi’s disciple Nityananda’s son, Birbhadra, helped popularise the Baul tradition. Over time, Baul philosophy evolved through a synthesis of Buddhist Sahajiya-Nath practices, Sufi thought, Chaitanya’s devotional movement, and local folk traditions, ultimately emerging as a symbol of universal humanism. In the nineteenth century, it reached its zenith through the spiritual practice and compositions of Lalon Shah.
The essence of Baul thought lies in universal humanity—freedom from caste divisions and surrender to the Creator. Lalon Shah’s songs, such as “Nanan boron gavire bhai eki boron dudh / Jagat bhoromiya deklam eki mayer put” (“Cows of many colours give milk of the same hue; I’ve wandered the world and seen all are children of one mother”), “Shob loke koy Lalon ki jat shongshare” (“Everyone asks, what caste is Lalon in this world?”), and “Jat gelo jat gelo bole eki ajob karkhana” (“They cry caste is lost—what a strange factory this is!”) magnificently capture the futility of caste and the ideals of global humanity.
During the nineteenth century, the songs of Kangal Harinath (Fakir Chand) gained widespread popularity. Around the same time, Manomohan Dutta’s Baul compositions also became well known. Harinath and Rabindranath Tagore both played key roles in bringing Baul songs to the attention of educated society. They showed great enthusiasm in collecting, preserving, and writing about Baul music. The legacy of Baul-minstrel saints such as Gagan, Duddu Shah, Pagla Kanai, Bhaba Pagla, Radha Raman (1833–1916), Madan, Shah Noor, Sahabuddin, and Hasan Raja greatly enriched the Baul repertoire. Their philosophical ideals also influenced modern Bengali lyricists. The “Five Great Poets” of Bengali music—Rabindranath Tagore, D.L. Roy, Rajanikanta Sen, Atulprasad Sen, and Kazi Nazrul Islam—incorporated refined Baul elements into their work. The unique feature of Bengali music—its seamless blend of lyrics and melody—is beautifully evident in Baul songs.
From the late eighteenth to the mid-nineteenth century, there was a flourishing of ragasangeet (classical raga-based music) in Bengal. During this period, Tappa songs also gained popularity. The originator of Bengali Tappa was Ramnidhi Gupta, popularly known as Nidhu Babu. His compositions came to be known as “Nidhu Babu’s Tappa,” which remained highly popular until the mid-nineteenth century. He is regarded not only as the founder of Tappa but also as a pioneering figure in modern Bengali lyrical music.
Tappa originated as a folk form in Punjab. In the early eighteenth century, Golam Nabi (or Shori Miyan, according to some accounts) from Jhang district blended the camel drivers’ folk tunes with North Indian raga structures to develop the Tappa. Nidhu Babu followed the raga, rhythm, and stylistic forms of Shori Miyan’s Tappa to compose the Bengali Tappa. For instance:
Shori Miyan’s Tappa — “O Miyan be janewale (Tanu) / Allah ki kasam kiriya nanuwale” (Raga: Sindhu Khamaj)
Nidhu Babu’s Tappa — “Ki jatona jatone mone mone mon-e jane / Pache loke hase shune, laje prokash korine” (Raga: Sindhu Khamaj)
Although based on the oscillating melodic structure of the Western Tappa, Nidhu Babu’s version differed in that it did not rely on rapid tan (fast melodic passages). While the original featured quick, ornamental flourishes, Nidhu Babu infused each melodic movement with a sense of emotive expression, bringing out the pathos inherent in Tappa. This hallmark of the Bengali Tappa was later adopted by subsequent composers. Notable among them were Sridhar Kathak, Kalidas Chattopadhyay (Kali Mirza), Raghunath Ray, Ramshankar Bhattacharya, Habib Miyan, and Hasnu Miyan Tappabaj. Bengali Tappa is admired for its poetic quality and musical refinement, representing a harmonious blend of old and new traditions. This genre deeply influenced later lyricists such as Rabindranath, D.L. Roy, Atulprasad, and Nazrul, whose compositions bear the unmistakable imprint of Tappa.
With the establishment of the Brahmo Samaj in the nineteenth century, Brahmasangeet emerged as an integral part of Brahmo religious worship. Its pioneer was Raja Rammohan Roy. Brahmasangeet is devotional music rooted in raga, opposing idolatry and advocating monotheism—dedicated to the formless Supreme Being. In its early stages, Brahmasangeet was composed in the styles of tappa and khayal. Later, under the influence of Bishnu Chakraborty and Krishnaprasad Chakraborty, the dhrupad form began to be employed in its composition. The gravity and serenity of dhrupad made it particularly suited to devotional purposes, hence later Brahmasangeet compositions adopted this form. From Rammohan to Rabindranath, many contributed to the genre. The tradition of Brahmasangeet has influenced modern lyricists and enriched the landscape of Bengali music.
During the nineteenth century, alongside the resurgence of national consciousness and a growing sense of ethnic pride, there arose a renewed interest in heritage. It was gradually realised that the restoration and re-establishment of national heritage was impossible without acknowledging folk culture. Thus, in 1855, Ishwarchandra Gupta drew public attention to nearly forgotten folk music through the journal Sambad Prabhakar. By collecting and publishing ancient Bengali songs, he initiated discourse on the subject. The Tagore family of Jorasanko—especially Debendranath Tagore—played a significant role in this movement. Subsequently, Rabindranath Tagore, Muhammad Mansuruddin, Jasimuddin, Kshitimohan Sen, Dineshchandra Sen, Chandra Kumar De and others made concerted efforts in this field. Through their endeavours, various regional folk traditions were rediscovered, including baul, bhatiyali, sari, jari, marfati, and murshidi songs. Rich in emotional and musical diversity, these traditions became treasured assets of Bengali music. By the end of the nineteenth century, the boundaries of raga music, folk music, and poetic song had become more clearly defined. Thereafter, the rise of urban civilisation ushered in a genre of modern music suited to contemporary lifestyles.
Among those who still reign supreme in the Bengali musical world for the beauty of both melody and lyrics are Rabindranath Tagore, Dwijendralal Ray, Rajanikanta Sen, Atulprasad Sen, and Kazi Nazrul Islam. These five near-contemporaneous lyrical poets not only influenced their own time but continue to enrich Bengali music in diverse ways. Though melody holds universal appeal, lyrics carry immense significance in Bengali songs. In the compositions of these five poets, a perfect synthesis of tune and verse is evident. Rabindranath, being both lyricist and composer, achieved a seamless union of word and melody in his work. Although his contemporaries and successors have followed this ideal, the works of these five poets remain luminous with their distinct individuality. Listeners can easily identify the authorship of a song by its tone and style. These five brought together elements of raga, folk, and Western music in Bengali song.
Dwijendralal’s most popular and widely acclaimed songs were originally composed for his plays. While he wrote songs of various kinds, his theatre-related compositions dominate his oeuvre. He also excelled in composing patriotic, romantic, nature-inspired and humorous songs. His non-theatrical pieces, too, carry strong emotional appeal.
Rajanikanta Sen, who worked within more limited means in the provinces, wrote songs that came to be known collectively as Kantagiti. His music reflected the determination to break the chains of subjugation, an affinity for his own culture, and deep nationalism. A notable aspect of Kantagiti is its devotional fervour and complete surrender to the Divine.
Atulprasad Sen composed most of his songs while living abroad. He blended ragas with ancient folk tunes such as baul and kirtan, imbuing his songs with deep emotional resonance. In the realm of modern music, it was Kazi Nazrul Islam who first introduced post-Tagorean themes. His work was notably different in both tone and melody. One of Nazrul’s chief contributions to Bengali music was the introduction of the ghazal of exceptional quality. By composing romantic ghazals centred on human relationships, he enriched modern Bengali music. Although Atulprasad also shaped the ghazal in Bengali, it was Nazrul who perfected its form. It was he who first introduced into Bengali music themes such as love, nature, the moon, flowers, garlands, and tombs—motifs that were later adopted by other lyricists and remain audible in contemporary Bengali songs. Nazrul’s effortless incorporation of various ragas, use of folk tunes, and masterful employment of Arabic and Persian vocabulary added a new dimension to Bengali music.
Nazrul primarily composed songs for gramophone companies and the film industry. His songs—Nazrulgeeti—possess a unique emotional, lyrical, and melodic character, which made them extraordinarily popular during the 1930s and 40s. Gramophone recordings and cinema contributed significantly to this popularity. Notable performers of Nazrulgeeti include Dilip Kumar Roy, Gyanendra Prasad Goswami, Sachin Dev Burman, Kanan Devi, Angur Bala, Dhirendra Chandra Maitra, Abdul Halim Chowdhury, Feroza Begum, and Sudhin Das.
From the time of Nazrul, a fundamental transformation began to unfold in modern Bengali music. It became evident that the roles of lyricist, composer, and performer were increasingly being assumed by separate individuals. This somewhat disrupted the organic unity of lyrics and melody that had defined earlier Bengali songs. Nevertheless, many contemporary and later lyricists continued to follow this model, which remains prevalent today.
Four notable contemporaries of Nazrul were Sourindramohan Mukhopadhyay (1884–1966), Hemendrakumar Roy (1888–1963), Dilip Kumar Roy, and Tulsi Lahiri. Although Dilip Kumar Roy entered the musical world with great promise, he soon abandoned it in favour of spiritual pursuits. Many of Tulsi Lahiri’s compositions, though popularly attributed to the Nazrulgeeti canon, bear distinct individual characteristics. Sourindramohan’s songs show clear influence of Rabindranath, while Hemendrakumar Roy excelled in music, dance, and drama, earning considerable popularity on the professional stage.
During this period, alongside the growing popularity of Nazrul’s songs, Bengali music created a tremendous impact on the public consciousness through the medium of films and gramophone companies. A new audience emerged, eager to listen to recorded songs. Consequently, the development and potential of modern Bengali music expanded considerably. In response to this audience demand, recording companies became keen to release fresh songs, which in turn created a need for numerous lyricists, composers, and performers.
Among the notable lyricists of this era were Sajanikanta Das (1900–1962), Hiren Basu, Shailen Roy (1905–1963), Ajay Bhattacharya (1906–1943), Banikumar (1907–1974), Subodh Purkaystha (1907–1984), Anil Bhattacharya (1908–1944), Pronab Roy (1911–1975), Premendra Mitra, Nishikanta, Shyamal Gupta, and Gauriprasanna Majumdar (1925–1986), among others. Distinguished composer-lyricists and musicians included Jyotirindra Maitra (1911–1977), Hemang Biswas (1912–?), Binoy Roy (1918–1975), Sukriti Sen, Salil Chowdhury (1923–1994), and Amal Chattopadhyay. Their compositions resonated widely during their time and achieved considerable success.
This success was largely due to the lyricists’ steadfast devotion to poetic quality and the composers’ remarkable talent. Among the composers, particular mention must be made of Himanshukumar Dutta, Dilipkumar Roy, Kamal Dasgupta, Anupam Ghatak, and Subal Dasgupta. Several musicians played a crucial role in popularising and enriching modern Bengali music, including Dilipkumar Roy, Krishnachandra De, Kanan Devi, K. Mallick (Kasem Mallick), K.A. Saigal, Pankaj Mallick, Shailadevi, Bhishmadev Chattopadhyay, Sachin Dev Burman, Gyanendraprasad Goswami, Uma Basu, Abbasuddin, Santosh Sengupta, and Firoza Begum.
The Swadeshi movement, which began in 1905 in response to the partition of Bengal, inspired notable literary and musical works. Rabindranath Tagore composed the Baul song ‘Banglar Mati Banglar Jol’, Dwijendralal Ray penned ‘Bongo Amar Janani Amar’, Rajanikanta exhorted people to ‘put on the coarse cloth given by mother’, and Atul Prasad wrote ‘Bolo Bolo Bolo Sobe’. Nazrul’s fiery poems and songs further invigorated the movement. His song ‘Ei Shikol Pora Chol Modhur’ stirred great enthusiasm among the patriots. Folk poet Mukunda Das (1878–1934) composed Jatra plays like ‘Desher Gaan’ and ‘Matripuja’, which travelled from village to village, inspiring the people in their fight against British rule and oppression. Later, during the mass uprising of 1969 and the Bangladesh Liberation War of 1971, these songs became powerful instruments of resistance. During this period, numerous patriotic and inspirational songs were composed, giving rise to a new genre in Bengali music known as ‘Desher Gaan’ or ‘Patriotic Songs’.
After 1947, in Bangladesh, the practice of Rabindra-Nazrul music expanded significantly. Artists began recording modern songs on gramophone records to meet the demands of the film industry. Prominent lyricists and composers of this era included Abu Hena Mostafa Kamal, Muhammad Moniruzzaman, Khan Ataur Rahman, Debu Bhattacharya, Samar Das, Abdul Ahad, and others.
The Language Movement of 1952 and the martyrdom of the language heroes on 21 February inspired countless poems, songs, elegies, and ballads from poets and writers of Bangladesh. Among these, the famous song ‘Amar Bhaier Rokte Rangano Ekushey February, Ami Ki Bhulite Pari’—with lyrics by Abdul Gaffar Chowdhury and music composed by Shahid Altaf Mahmud—became emblematic. Folk and popular poets composed songs such as ‘Rashtrabhasha Andolon Korilere Bangali’. Artist Abdul Latif wrote ‘Ora Amar Mukher Bhasha Kaira Nite Chay’, and mass singer Sheikh Lutfur Rahman inspired the public with his song ‘Milito Praner Kolrabe, Joubone Phool Phote Rokter Onubhobe’. These songs commemorating the Liberation War, the independence struggle, and language martyrs came to be known as ‘Songs of the Nation and Language’. To this day, Bengalis express their grief and respect for the motherland and language martyrs through these songs.
Though Bengali music, rooted in the ideals of indigenous music, has at various times incorporated elements of raga music, folk music, and Western music, it has consistently evolved along a linear path of harmony between lyrics and melody. From the dawn of the twentieth century, with the spread of education and the development of raga music practice, Bengali music has flourished in new forms, enriched with diversity of themes and melodies—a tradition that continues to this day. Towards the end of the twentieth century, band music also gained popularity in Bangladesh, particularly among the youth; however, its musical quality remains in an early stage of development.
References:
Rabindranath Tagore, Sangeetachinta, Visva-Bharati Publication Department, Kolkata, 1907;
Ahmed Sharif, Bichitro Chinta, Chowdhury Publishing House, Dhaka, 1975;
Dilipkumar Mukhopadhyay, Bangalir Ragasangeet Chorcha, Pharma KLM Pvt Ltd, Kolkata, 1976;
Rajyeshwar Mitra, Bangla Sangeet (Prachin o Madhyajug), First Edition, Kolkata, 1984;
Sudhir Chakraborty, Bangla Gaaner Sandhane, Aruna Prakashani, Kolkata, 1990;
Karunamoy Goswami, Bangla Gaaner Biborton, Bangla Academy, Dhaka, 1993;
Mridulkanti Chakraborty, Bangla Gaaner Dhara, Bangladesh Shilpakala Academy, Dhaka, 1993.